Freud’s theories of the workings of the mind, while brilliant for their day, were formulated before most of this century’s great advances in neurophysiology and biochemistry. Today, we have a far deeper understanding of the biological components of thought, emotion, and behavior than was dreamed of eighty years ago. It would be foolish to continue parroting Freud’s psychological theories as if these advances had never occurred.
It can be inferred from the passage above that the author would be most likely to favor

(A) the abandonment of most of Freud’s theories
(B) a greater reliance on biological rather than psychological explanations of behavior
(C) a critical reexamination of Freud’s place in the history of psychology
(D) a reexamination of Freud’s theories in the light of contemporary biology
(E) increased financial support for studies in neurophysiology and biochemistry

Contrary to the statements of labor leaders, the central economic problem facing America today is not the distribution of wealth. It is productivity. With the productivity of U.S. industry stagnant, or even declining slightly, the economic pie is no longer growing. Labor leaders, of course, point to what they consider an unfair distribution of the slices of pie to justify their demands for further increases in wages and benefits. And in the past, when the pie was still growing, management could afford to acquiesce. No longer. Until productivity resumes its growth, there can be no justification for further increases in the compensation of workers.

Which of the following statements by a labor leader focuses on the logical weakness in the argument above?

(A) Although the economic pie is no longer growing, the portion of the pie allocated to American workers remains unjustly small.
(B) If management fails to accommodate the demands of workers, labor leaders will be forced to call strikes that will cripple the operation of industry.
(C) Although productivity is stagnant, the U.S. population is growing, so that the absolute size of the economic pie continues to grow as well.
(D) As a labor leader, I can be concerned only with the needs of working people, not with the problems faced by management.
(E) The stagnation of U.S. industry has been caused largely by factors—such as foreign competition—beyond the control of American workers.

64. After Queen Isabella asked Admiral Columbus to describe the island of Hispaniola (now Haiti), which was newly discovered, he had reached for a sheet of paper, crumpled it, and said, “It looks like that—beyond the mountains, more mountains.”

(A) After Queen Isabella asked Admiral Columbus to describe the island of Hispaniola (now Haiti), which was newly discovered, he had reached
(B) On being asked to describe the new discovery of the island of Hispaniola (now Haiti) by Queen Isabella, Admiral Columbus, reaching
(C) Queen Isabella asked Admiral Columbus to describe the newly discovered island of Hispaniola (now Haiti), then he reached
(D) When asked by Queen Isabella to describe the newly discovered island of Hispaniola (now Haiti), Admiral Columbus reached
(E) After Queen Isabella had asked Admiral Columbus to describe the discovery of the island of Hispaniola (now Haiti), he had reached

65.    After suffering $2 billion in losses and 25,000 layoffs, the nation’s semiconductor industry, which makes chips that run everything from computers and spy satellites to dishwashers, appears to have made a long-awaited recovery.

(A) computers and spy satellites to dishwashers, appears to have
(B) computers, spy satellites, and dishwashers, appears having
(C) computers, spy satellites, and dishwashers, appears that it has
(D) computers and spy satellites to dishwashers, appears that it has
(E) computers and spy satellites as well as dishwashers, appears to have

66.    After the Arab conquest of Egypt in A.D. 640, Arabic became the dominant language of the Egyptians, replacing older languages and writing systems.
(A) became the dominant language of the Egyptians, replacing older languages
(B) became the dominant language of the Egyptians, replacing languages that were older
(C) becomes the dominant language of the Egyptians and it replaced older languages
(D) becomes the dominant language of the Egyptians and it replaced languages that were older
(E) becomes the dominant language of the Egyptians, having replaced languages that were older

When people evade income taxes by not declaring taxable income, a vicious cycle results. Tax evasion forces lawmakers to raise income tax rates, which causes the tax burden on nonevading taxpayers to become heavier. This, in turn, encourages even more taxpayers to evade income taxes by hiding taxable income.

The vicious cycle described above could not result unless which of the following were true?

(A) An increase in tax rates tends to function as an incentive for taxpayers to try to increase their pretax incomes.
(B) Some methods for detecting tax evaders, and thus recovering some tax revenue lost through evasion, bring in more than they cost, but their success rate varies from year to year.
(C) When lawmakers establish income tax rates in order to generate a certain level of revenue, they do not allow adequately for revenue that will be lost through evasion.
(D) No one who routinely hides some taxable income can be induced by a lowering of tax rates to stop hiding such income unless fines of evaders are raised at the same time.
(E) Taxpayers do not differ from each other with respect to the rate of taxation that will cause them to evade

30- A special Japanese green tea called genmai-cha contains brown rice and is considered as a delicacy fit for a gourmet by most Japanese, though it is virtually unavailable outside Yokohama.

(A) A special Japanese green tea called genmai-cha contains brown rice and is considered as a delicacy fit for a gourmet by most Japanese, though it is virtually unavailable outside Yokohama.
(B) Considered to be a delicacy fit for a gourmet by most Japanese, genmai-cha is a special green tea that contains brown rice, virtually unavailable outside Yokohama.
(C) A special Japanese green tea called genmai-cha contains brown rice and is considered a gourmet delicacy by most Japanese, though it is virtually unavailable outside Yokohama.
(D) Most Japanese consider genmai-cha, a special green tea which contains brown rice, as a delicacy virtually unavailable outside Yokohama.
(E) Though virtually unavailable outside Yokohama, most Japanese consider genmai-cha, a special green tea that contains brown rice, a gourmet delicacy.

June is taller than Kristin.
Letty is taller than Maria.
Maria is shorter than Nancy.
Kristin and Nancy are exactly the same height.

If the information above is true, which of the following must also be true?
(A) Letty is taller than Nancy.
(B) Letty is taller than June.
(C) Kristin is shorter than Letty.
(D) June is taller than Maria.
(E) Kristin is shorter than Maria.

A medical article once pointed with great alarm to an increase in cancer among milk drinkers. Cancer, it seems, was becoming increasingly frequent in New England, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Switzerland, where a lot of milk is produced and consumed, while remaining rare in Ceylon, where milk is scarce. For further evidence it was pointed out that cancer was less frequent in some states of the southern United States where less milk was consumed. Also, it was pointed out, milk-drinking English women get some kinds of cancer eighteen times as frequently as Japanese women who seldom drink milk.

A little digging might uncover quite a number of ways to account for these figures, but one factor is enough by itself to show them up. Cancer is predominantly a disease that strikes in middle life or after. Switzerland and the states of the United States mentioned first are alike in having populations with relatively long spans of life. English women at the time the study was made were living an average of twelve years longer than Japanese women.

Professor Helen M. Walker has worked out an amusing illustration of the folly in assuming there must be cause and effect whenever two things vary together. In investigating the relationship between age and some physical characteristics of women, begin by measuring the angle of the feet in walking. You will find that the angle tends to be greater among older women. You might first consider whether this indicates that women grow older because they toe out, and you can see immediately that this is ridiculous. So it appears that age increases the angle between the feet, and most women must come to toe out more as they grow older.

Any such conclusion is probably false and certainly unwarranted. You could only reach it legitimately by studying the same women—or possibly equivalent groups—over a period of time. That would eliminate the factor responsible here, which is that the older women grew up at a time when a young lady was taught to toe out in walking, while the members of the younger group were learning posture in a day when that was discouraged.

When you find somebody—usually an interested party—making a fuss about a correlation, look first of all to see if it is not one of this type, produced by the stream of events, the trend of the times. In our time it is easy to show a positive correlation between any pair of things like these: number of students in college, number of inmates in mental institutions, consumption of cigarettes, incidence of heart disease, use of X-ray machines, production of false teeth, salaries of California school teachers, profits of Nevada gambling halls. To call some one of these the cause of some other is manifestly silly. But it is done every day.

1) The author’s conclusion about the relationship between age and the ways women walk indicates he believes that
(A) toeing out is associated with aging
(B) toeing out is fashionable with the younger generation
(C) toeing out was fashionable for an older generation
(D) studying equivalent groups proves that toeing out increases with age
(E) studying the same women over a period of time proves that toeing out increases with age

2) The author describes the posited relationship between toeing out and age (lines 29-40) in order to
(A) illustrate a folly
(B) show how social attitudes toward posture change
(C) explain the effects of aging
(D) illustrate a medical problem
(E) offer a method to determine a woman’s age from her footprints

3) Given the author’s statements in the passage, his advice for evaluating statistics that show a high positive correlation between two conditions could include all the following statements EXCEPT
(A) look for an explanation in the stream of events
(B) consider some trend of the times as the possible cause of both conditions
(C) account for the correlations in some way other than causality
(D) determine which of the two conditions is the cause and which is the effect
(E) decide whether the conclusions have been reached legitimately and the appropriate groupings have been made

4) Assume that there is a high statistical correlation between college attendance and individual earnings. Given this, the author would most probably agree with which one of the following statements about the cause-effect relationship between college attendance and income?
(A) Someone’s potential earnings may be affected by other variables, like wealth or intelligence, that are also associated with college attendance.
(B) Someone who attends graduate school will be rich.
(C) Someone who attends graduate school will earn more money than someone who does not.
(D) Someone who attends college will earn more money than someone who does not attend college.
(E) Someone who attends college will earn more money only because she does attend college.

5) According to the author, Professor Walker believes that
(A) women who toe out age more rapidly than women who do not
(B) most women toe out as they grow older because age increases the angle between the feet
(C) older women tend to walk with a greater angle between the feet
(D) toeing out is the reason why women grow old
(E) a causal relationship must exist whenever two things vary together

6) The author would reject all the following statements about cause-effect relationships as explanations for the statistics that show an increase in cancer rates EXCEPT that the
(A) Ceylonese drink more milk than the English
(B) Swiss produce and consume large quantities of dairy products
(C) Women of New England drink more milk than the women who live in some states of the southern United States
(D) People of Wisconsin have relatively high life expectancies
(E) People who live in some states of the southern United States have relatively high life expectancies

7) How would the author be most likely to explain the correlation between the “salaries of California school teachers [and the] profits of Nevada gambling halls” (Lines 63-64)?
(A) There is a positive correlation that is probably due to California teachers’ working in Las Vegas on weekends to increase both their salaries and increase both their salaries and Nevada’s gambling profits.
(B) There is a positive correlation that is probably linked to general economic trends, but no direct causal relationship exists.
(C) There is a negative correlation that is probably linked to general economic trends, but no direct causal relationship exists.
(D) There is a negative correlation because the element that controls Las Vegas gambling probably has agents in the California school system.
(E) The author would deny the existence of any correlation whatsoever.

In some cities, many potters have been winning acclaim as artists. But since pottery must be useful, potters must exercise their craft with an eye to the practical utility of their product. For this reason, pottery is not an art.Which of the following, is an assumption that supports drawing the conclusion above from the reason given for that conclusion?

A) Some plates, bowl and vessels are made to be placed in museums where they will not be used by anyone.
B) Some potters are more concerned than others with the practical utility of the products they produce.
C) Potters should be more concerned with the practical utility of their products than they currently are.
D) Artists are not concerned with the monetary value of their products.
E) An object is not an art object if its maker pays attention to the objects’ practical utility.

The ancient city of Cephesa was not buried by an eruption of Mt. Amnos in A.D. 310, as some believe. The eruption in the year 310 damaged the city, but it did not destroy it. Cephesa survived for another century before it finally met its destruction in another eruption around A.D. 415.
Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the author’s claim that the city of Cephesa was not buried by the eruption of Mt. Amnos in A.D. 310?

(A) The city of Cephesa is mentioned in a historical work known to have been written in A.D. 400.
(B) Coins bearing the image of an emperor who lived around A.D. 410 have been discovered in the ruins of Cephesa, which were preserved by the cinders and ashes that buried the city.
(C) Geological evidence shows that the eruption of Mt. Amnos in A.D. 415 deposited a 10-foot-thick layer of lava on the city of Cephesa.
(D) Artworks from the city of Cephesa have been found in the ruins of another city known to have been destroyed in A.D. 420.
(E) A historical work written in A.D. 430 refers to the eruption of Mt. Amnos in A.D. 415.

While some economists believe that Germany should be warned by the European Commission that it could face the imposition of radical restrictions on its domestic fiscal policymaking as early as the beginning of next year, others say that Germany will take the warning seriously only if it would be backed by sanctions.

A) only if it would be backed by sanctions.
B) ony if it is backed by sanctions.
C) if it is backed only by sanctions.
D) if it was only backed by sanctions.
E) if it would only be backed by sanctions.

A huge flying reptile that died out with the dinosaurs some 65 million years ago, the Quetzalcoatlus had a wingspan of 36 feet, believed to be the largest flying creature the world has ever seen.

(A) believed to be
(B) and that is believed to be
(C) and it is believed to have been
(D) which was, it is believed,
(E) which is believed to be

56.  Acid rain and snow result from the chemical reactions between industrial emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides with atmospheric water vapor to produce highly corrosive sulfuric and nitric acids.

(A) with atmospheric water vapor to produce highly corrosive sulfuric and nitric acids
(B) with atmospheric water vapor producing highly corrosive sulfuric and nitric acids
(C) and atmospheric water vapor which has produced highly corrosive sulfuric and nitric acids
(D) and atmospheric water vapor which have produced sulfuric and nitric acids which are highly corrosive
(E) and atmospheric water vapor to produce highly corrosive sulfuric and nitric acids

62. After gradual declension down to about 39 hours in 1970, the workweek in the United States has steadily increased to the point that the average worker now puts in an estimated 164 extra hours of paid labor a year.

(A) After gradual declension down
(B) Following a gradual declension down
(C) After gradual declining down
(D) After gradually declining
(E) Following gradually declining

The proposed health care bill would increase government regulation of health insurance, establish standards that would guarantee wider access to people with past health problems and to workers changing jobs who otherwise could be uncovered for months.

(A) establish standards that would guarantee wider access to people with past health problems and to workers changing jobs who
(B) establishing standards that would guarantee wider access to people with past health problems and to workers who are changing jobs and
(C) to establish standards that would guarantee wider access to people with past health problems and to workers who change jobs that
(D) for establishing standards that would guarantee wider access for people with past health problems and workers changing jobs who
(E) for the establishment of standards that would guarantee wider access for people with past health problems and workers who are changing jobs that

57. Added to the increase in hourly wages requested last July, the railroad employees are now seeking an expanded program of retirement benefits.

(A) Added to the increase in hourly wages requested last July, the railroad employees are now seeking an expanded program of retirement benefits.

(B) Added to the increase in hourly wages which had been requested last July, the employees of the railroad are now seeking an expanded program of retirement benefits.

(C) The railroad employees are now seeking an expanded program of retirement benefits added to the increase in hourly wages that were requested last July.

(D) In addition to the increase in hourly wages that were requested last July, the railroad employees are now seeking an expanded program of retirement benefits.

(E) In addition to the increase in hourly wages requested last July, the employees of the railroad are now seeking an expanded program of retirement benefits.

The Industrial Revolution, making it possible to mass-produce manufactured goods, was marked by their use of new machines, new energy sources, and new basic materials.

A) making it possible to mass-produce manufactured goods, was marked by their use of
B) making possible the mass production of manufactured goods, marked by the use of
C) which made it possible that manufactured goods were mass-produced, was marked by their using
D) which made possible the mass-production of manufactured goods, was marked by the use of
E) which made the mass production of manufactured goods possible and was marked by using

41. According to a study published by Dr. Myrna Weissman, only one percent of Americans born before 1905 had suffered major depression by the age of seventy-five; of those born since 1955, six percent had become depressed by age twenty-four.

(A) only one percent of Americans born before 1905 had suffered major depression by the age of seventy-five; of those born since 1955, six percent had become depressed by age twenty-four

(B) only one percent of Americans born before 1905 suffer major depression by the age of seventy-five; if they are born since 1955, six percent become depressed by age twenty-four

(C) of Americans born before 1905, only one percent of them have suffered major depression by age seventy-five, but six percent of those born since 1955 do by the age of twenty-four

(D) major depression is suffered by the age of seventy-five by only one percent of Americans born before 1905, and by age twenty-four by the six percent born since 1955

(E) Americans born before 1905 suffer major depression by the age of seventy-five only one percent of the time, but six percent of those born since 1955 did so by age twenty-four

Historians have long accepted the notion that women of English descent who lived in the English colonies of North America during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were better off than either the contemporary women in England or the colonists own nineteenth-century daughters and granddaughters. The golden age theory originated in the 1920s with the work of Elizabeth Dexter, who argued that there were relatively few women among the colonists, and that all hands male and female were needed to sustain the growing settlements. Rigid sex-role distinctions could not exist under such circumstances; female colonists could accordingly engage in whatever occupations they wished, encountering few legal or social constraints if they sought employment outside the home. The surplus of male colonists also gave women crucial bargaining power in the marriage market since women’s contributions were vital to the survival of colonial households.

Dexter’s portrait of female colonists living under conditions of rough equality with their male counterparts was eventually incorporated into studies of nineteenth-century middle-class women. The contrast between the self-sufficient colonial woman and the oppressed nineteenth-century woman, confined to her home by stultifying ideologies of domesticity and by the fact that industrialization eliminated employment opportunities for middle-class women, gained an extraordinarily tenacious hold on historians. Even scholars who have questioned the golden age view of colonial women’s status have continued to accept the paradigm of a nineteenth-century decline from a more desirable past. For example, Joan Hoff-Wilson asserted that there was no golden age and yet emphasized that the nineteenth century brought increased loss of function and authentic status for middle-class women.

Recent publications about colonial women have exposed the concept of a decline in status as simplistic and unsophisticated, a theory that based its assessment of colonial women’s status solely on one factor (their economic function in society) and assumed all too readily that a relatively simple social system automatically brought higher standing to colonial women. The new scholarship presents a far more complicated picture, one in which definitions of gender roles, the colonial economy, demographic patterns, religion, the law, and household organization all contributed to defining the circumstances of colonial women’s lives. Indeed, the primary concern of modern scholarship is not to generalize about women’s status but to identify the specific changes and continuities in women’s lives during the colonial period. For example, whereas earlier historians suggested that there was little change for colonial women before 1800, the new scholarship suggests that a three-part chronological division more accurately reflects colonial women’s experiences. First was the initial period of English colonization (from the 1620s to about 1660); then a period during which patterns of family and community were challenged and reshaped (roughly from 1660 to 1750); and finally the era of revolution (approximately 1750 to 1815), which brought other changes to women’s lives.

1) Which one of the following best expresses the main idea of the passage?
(A) An earlier theory about the status of middle-class women in the nineteenth century has been supported by recent scholarship.
(B) Recent studies of middle-class nineteenth-century women have altered an earlier theory about the status of colonial women.
(C) Recent scholarship has exposed an earlier theory about the status of colonial women as too narrowly based and oversimplified.
(D) An earlier theory about colonial women has greatly influenced recent studies on middle-class women in the nineteenth century.
(E) An earlier study of middle-class women was based on insufficient research on the status of women in the nineteenth century.

2) The author discusses Hoff-Wilson primarily in order to
(A) describe how Dexter’s theory was refuted by historians of nineteenth-century North America
(B) describe how the theory of middle-class women’s nineteenth-century decline in status was developed
(C) describe an important influence on recent scholarship about the colonial period
(D) demonstrate the persistent influence of the golden age theory
(E) provide an example of current research one the colonial period

3) It can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to describe the views of the scholars
(A) unassailable
(B) innovative
(C) paradoxical
(D) overly sophisticated
(E) without merit

4) It can be inferred from the passage that in proposing the three-part chronological division , scholars recognized which one of the following?
(A) The circumstances of colonial women’s lives were defined by a broad variety of social and economic factors.
(B) Women’s lives in the English colonies of North America were similar to women’s lives in seventeenth-and eighteenth-century England.
(C) Colonial women’s status was adversely affected when patterns of family and community were established in the late seventeenth century.
(D) Colonial women’s status should be assessed primarily on the basis of their economic function in society.
(E) Colonial women’s status was low when the colonies were settled but changed significantly during the era of revolution.

5) According to the author, the publications about colonial women mentioned in the third paragraph had which one of the following effects?
(A) They undermined Dexter’s argument on the status of women colonists during the colonial period.
(B) They revealed the tenacity of the golden age theory in American history.
(C) They provided support for historians, such as Hoff-Wilson. Who study the nineteenth century.
(D) They established that women’s status did not change significantly from the colonial period to the nineteenth century.
(E) They provided support for earlier theories about women colonists in the English colonies of North America.

6) Practitioners of the new scholarship discussed in the last paragraph would be most likely to agree with which one of the following statements about Dexter’s argument?
(A) It makes the assumption that women’s status is determined primarily by their political power in society.
(B) It makes the assumption that a less complex social system necessarily confers higher status on women.
(C) It is based on inadequate research on women’s economic role in the colonies.
(D) It places too much emphasis on the way definitions of gender roles affected women colonists in the colonial period.
(E) It accurately describes the way women’s status declined in the nineteenth century.

35. According to a panel of health officials, there has been a great deal of confusion in the medical profession about whether obesity is a biological disorder posing serious health risks or a condition more related to appearance than to health.

(A) about whether obesity is a biological disorder posing serious health risks or a condition more related to appearance than to
(B) with respect to obesity being a biological disorder posing serious health risks or if it is related more to appearance than
(C) over whether or not obesity is a biological disorder posing serious health risks or it is a condition more related to appearance than to
(D) about obesity and if it is a biological disorder posing serious health risks or a condition related to appearance more than to
(E) concerning whether obesity is a biological disorder posing serious health risks or it is a condition related to appearance more than